Skip to main content
SpringerLink
Log in
Book cover

Behavior Genetics of Psychopathology pp 185–230Cite as

Genetics of Substance Use Disorders

  • Chapter
  • First Online:

Part of the book series: Advances in Behavior Genetics ((AIBG,volume 2))

Abstract

Substance use and misuse are amongst the leading contributors to preventable death in the USA and worldwide. In this chapter, we review evidence from family, adoption, and twin studies that substantiate the role of heritable influences on various stages of substance involvement, including initiation, regular use, and substance use disorders. Next, we review efforts directed at gene identification including linkage, candidate gene, and genome-wide association studies. Environmental risk and protective influences have also been consistently implicated in the etiology of substance use disorders. In this chapter, we examine the role of gene–environment correlations and interactions, such as increasing heritable variation in substance use in the presence of permissive environments. We conclude with future directions for genetics research into substance use disorders, in particular their role in pharmacogenetic treatments.

This is a preview of subscription content, log in via an institution.

Chapter
USD   29.95
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
eBook
USD   84.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Available as EPUB and PDF
  • Read on any device
  • Instant download
  • Own it forever
Softcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Compact, lightweight edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info
Hardcover Book
USD   109.99
Price excludes VAT (USA)
  • Durable hardcover edition
  • Dispatched in 3 to 5 business days
  • Free shipping worldwide - see info

Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout

Purchases are for personal use only

Learn about institutional subscriptions

References

  • Agrawal, A., Balasubramanian, S., Smith, E. K., Madden, P. A., Bucholz, K. K., Heath, A. C., et al. (2010). Peer substance involvement modifies genetic influences on regular substance involvement in young women. Addiction, 105(10), 1844–1853.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Edenberg, H. J., Foroud, T., Bierut, L. J., Dunne, G., Hinrichs, A. L., et al. (2006). Association of GABRA2 with drug dependence in the collaborative study of the genetics of alcoholism sample. Behavior Genetics, 36, 640–650.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Hinrichs, A., Dunn, G., Bertelsen, S., Dick, D., Saccone, S. F., et al. (2008). Linkage scan for quantitative traits identifies new regions of interest for substance dependence in the Collaborative Study on the Genetics Of Alcoholism (COGA) Sample. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 93, 12–20.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., & Lynskey, M. T. (2009). Candidate genes for cannabis use disorders: Findings, challenges and directions. Addiction, 104, 518–532.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Lynskey, M. T., Bucholz, K. K., Martin, N. G., Madden, P. A., & Heath, A. C. (2007). Contrasting models of genetic co-morbidity for cannabis and other illicit drugs in adult Australian twins. Psychological Medicines, 37, 49–60.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Lynskey, M. T., Todorov, A. A., Schrage, A. J., Littlefield, A. K., Grant, J. D., et al. (2010). A candidate gene association study of alcohol consumption in young women. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(3), 550–558.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Morley, K. I., Hansell, N. K., Pergadia, M. L., Montgomery, G. W., Statham, D. B., et al. (2008). Autosomal linkage analysis of cannabis use behaviors in Australian adults. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 98(3), 185–190.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Neale, M., Jacobson, K., Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (2005). Illicit drug use and abuse/dependence: Modeling of two-stage variables using the CCC approach. Addictive Behavior, 30, 1043–1048.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Pergadia, M. L., Saccone, S. F., Lynskey, M. T., Wang, J. C., Martin, N. G., et al. (2008). An autosomal linkage scan for cannabis use disorders in the nicotine addiction genetics project. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 713–721.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Verweij, K. J., Gillespie, N. A., Heath, A. C., Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., Martin, N. G., et al. (2012a). The genetics of addiction-a translational perspective. Transl. Psychiatry, 2, e140.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Freedman, N. D., Cheng, Y. C., Lin, P., Shaffer, J. R., Sun, Q., et al. (2012b). Measuring alcohol consumption for genomic meta-analyses of alcohol intake: opportunities and challenges. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 95(3), 539–547.

    Google Scholar 

  • Agrawal, A., Wetherill, L., Dick, D. M., Xuei, X., Hinrichs, A., Hesselbrock, V., et al. (2009). Evidence for association between polymorphisms in the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) gene and cannabis dependence. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 150B(5), 736–740.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994a). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (1994b). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed., Rev. ed.). Washington, DC: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (5th ed.). APA, Washington, DC.

    Google Scholar 

  • Anton, R. F., Oroszi, G., O’Malley, S., Couper, D., Swift, R., Pettinati, H., et al. (2008). An evaluation of mu-opioid receptor (OPRM1) as a predictor of naltrexone response in the treatment of alcohol dependence: Results from the combined Pharmacotherapies and behavioral interventions for alcohol dependence (COMBINE) study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 135–144.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Baik, I., Cho, N. H., Kim, S. H., Han, B. G., & Shin, C. (2011). Genome-wide association studies identify genetic loci related to alcohol consumption in Korean men. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, 93(4), 809–816.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Barnard, E. A., Skolnick, P., Olsen, R. W., Mohler, H., Sieghart, W., Biggio, G., et al. (1998). International Union of Pharmacology. XV. Subtypes of gamma-aminobutyric acid A receptors: Classification on the basis of subunit structure and receptor function. Pharmacological Reviews, 50, 291–313.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Begleiter, H., Reich, T., Hesselbrock, V., Porjesz, B., Li, T. K., Schuckit, M., et al. (1995). The collaborative study on the genetics of alcoholism. Alcohol Health and Research World, 19, 228–236.

    Google Scholar 

  • Bennett, S. N., Caporaso, N., Fitzpatrick, A. L., Agrawal, A., Barnes, K., Boyd, H. A., et al. (2011). Phenotype harmonization and cross-study collaboration in GWAS consortia: The GENEVA experience. Genetic Epidemiology, 35, 159–173.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., & Jacob, P., III. (1994). Metabolism of nicotine to cotinine studied by a dual stable isotope method. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 56, 483–493.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Benowitz, N. L., Swan, G. E., Jacob, P., III, Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., & Tyndale, R. F. (2006). CYP2A6 genotype and the metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine. Clinical Pharmacology and Therapeutics, 80, 457–467.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J. (2011). Genetic vulnerability and susceptibility to substance dependence. Neuron, 69, 618–627.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J., Agrawal, A., Bucholz, K. K., Doheny, K. F., Laurie, C., Pugh, E., et al. (2010). A genome-wide association study of alcohol dependence. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 107(11), 5082–5087.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J., Dinwiddie, S. H., Begleiter, H., Crowe, R. R., Hesselbrock, V., Nurnberger, J. I., Jr., et al. (1998). Familial transmission of substance dependence: Alcohol, marijuana, cocaine, and habitual smoking: A report from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 982–988.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J., Goate, A. M., Breslau, N., Johnson, E. O., Bertelsen, S., Fox, L., et al. (2012). ADH1B Is associated with alcohol dependence and alcohol consumption in populations of European and African ancestry. Molecular Psychiatry, 17(4), 445–450.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J., Madden, P. A., Breslau, N., Johnson, E. O., Hatsukami, D., Pomerleau, O. F., et al. (2007). Novel genes identified in a high-density genome wide association study for nicotine dependence. Human Molecular Genetics, 16, 24–35.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bierut, L. J., Stitzel, J. A., Wang, J. C., Hinrichs, A. L., Grucza, R. A., Xuei, X., et al. (2008). Variants in nicotinic receptors and risk for nicotine dependence. American Journal of Psychiatry, 165, 1163–1171.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bohman, M., Sigvardsson, S., & Cloninger, C. R. (1981). Maternal inheritance of alcohol abuse. Cross-fostering analysis of adopted women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 965–969.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Bouchard, T. J., Jr., & McGue, M. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on human psychological differences. Journal of Neurobiology, 54, 4–45.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, P. J., Enoch, M. A., Goldman, D., Li, T. K., & Yokoyama, A. (2009). The alcohol flushing response: An unrecognized risk factor for esophageal cancer from alcohol consumption. PLoS Medicine, 6, e50.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Brooks, P. J., Goldman, D., & Li, T. K. (2009). Alleles of alcohol and acetaldehyde metabolism genes modulate susceptibility to oesophageal cancer from alcohol consumption. Human Genomics, 3, 103–105.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Buck, K. J. (1996). New insight into the mechanisms of ethanol effects on GABAA receptor function and expression, and their relevance to behavior. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 198A–202A.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Budney, A. J., & Hughes, J. R. (2006). The cannabis withdrawal syndrome. Current Opinion in Psychiatry, 19, 233–238.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Button, T. M., Stallings, M. C., Rhee, S. H., Corley, R. P., Boardman, J. D., & Hewitt, J. K. (2009). Perceived peer delinquency and the genetic predisposition for substance dependence vulnerability. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 100, 1–8.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cadoret, R. J., Yates, W. R., Troughton, E., Woodworth, G., & Stewart, M. A. (1995). Adoption study demonstrating two genetic pathways to drug abuse. Archives of General Psychiatry, 52, 42–52.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Casey, B. J., Soliman, F., Bath, K. G., & Glatt, C. E. (2010). Imaging genetics and development: Challenges and promises. Human Brain Mapping, 31, 838–851.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., & Moffitt, T. E. (2006). Gene-environment interactions in psychiatry: Joining forces with neuroscience. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 7, 583–590.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Caspi, A., Moffitt, T. E., Cannon, M., McClay, J., Murray, R., Harrington, H., et al. (2005). Moderation of the effect of adolescent-onset cannabis use on adult psychosis by a functional polymorphism in the catechol-O-methyltransferase gene: Longitudinal evidence of a gene x environment interaction. Biological Psychiatry, 57, 1117–1127.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Chen, L. S., Johnson, E. O., Breslau, N., Hatsukami, D., Saccone, N. L., Grucza, R. A., et al. (2009). Interplay of genetic risk factors and parent monitoring in risk for nicotine dependence. Addiction, 104, 1731–1740.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cloninger, C. R., Bohman, M., & Sigvardsson, S. (1981). Inheritance of alcohol abuse. Cross-fostering analysis of adopted men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 38, 861–868.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Comings, D. E., Muhleman, D., Gade, R., Johnson, P., Verde, R., Saucier, G., et al. (1997). Cannabinoid receptor gene (CNR1): association with i.v. drug use. Molecular Psychiatry, 2, 161–168.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Cook, E. H., Jr., & Scherer, S. W. (2008). Copy-number variations associated with neuropsychiatric conditions. Nature, 455, 919–923.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Covault, J., Gelernter, J., Hesselbrock, V., Nellissery, M., & Kranzler, H. R. (2004). Allelic and haplotypic association of GABRA2 with alcohol dependence. American Journal of Medical Genetics B Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 129, 104–109.

    Google Scholar 

  • Cravatt, B. F., & Lichtman, A. H. (2003). Fatty acid amide hydrolase: An emerging therapeutic target in the endocannabinoid system. Current Opinion in Chemical Biology, 7, 469–475.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Creemers, H. E., Dijkstra, J. K., Vollebergh, W. A., Ormel, J., Verhulst, F. C., & Huizink, A. C. (2010). Predicting life-time and regular cannabis use during adolescence; the roles of temperament and peer substance use: The TRAILS study. Addiction, 105, 699–708.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Davies, G., Tenesa, A., Payton, A., Yang, J., Harris, S. E., Liewald, D., et al. (2011). Genome-wide association studies establish that human intelligence is highly heritable and polygenic. Molecular Psychiatry, 10.

    Google Scholar 

  • Degenhardt, L., Chiu, W. T., Sampson, N., Kessler, R. C., Anthony, J. C., Angermeyer, M., et al. (2008). Toward a global view of alcohol, tobacco, cannabis, and cocaine use: Findings from the WHO world mental health surveys. PLoS Medicine, 5, e141.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Degenhardt, L., & Hall, W. (2012). Extent of illicit drug use and dependence, and their contribution to the global burden of disease. Lancet, 379, 55–70.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Derringer, J., Krueger, R. F., McGue, M., & Iacono, W. G. (2008). Genetic and environmental contributions to the diversity of substances used in adolescent twins: A longitudinal study of age and sex effects. Addiction, 103, 1744–1751.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Di Marzo, V., De Petrocellis, L., Bisogno, T., & Melck, D. (1999). Metabolism of anandamide and 2-arachidonoylglycerol: An historical overview and some recent developments. Lipids, 34(Suppl), S319–S325.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M. (2011). Gene-environment interaction in psychological traits and disorders. Annuual Review on Clinical Psychology, 7, 383–409.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Bernard, M., Aliev, F., Viken, R., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., et al. (2009). The role of socioregional factors in moderating genetic influences on early adolescent behavior problems and alcohol use. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 1739–1748.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Bierut, L. J., Hinrichs, A. L., Fox, L., Bucholz, K., Kramer, J. R., et al. (2006). The role of GABRA2 in risk for conduct disorder and alcohol and drug dependence across different developmental stages. Behavior Genetics, 36(4), 577–590.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Edenberg, H. J., Xuei, X., Goate, A., Kuperman, S., Schuckit, M., et al. (2004). Association of GABRG3 with alcohol dependence. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 28, 4–9.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Latendresse, S. J., Lansford, J. E., Budde, J. P., Goate, A., Dodge, K. A., et al. (2009). Role of GABRA2 in trajectories of externalizing behavior across development and evidence of moderation by parental monitoring. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 649–657.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Latendresse, S. J., Creemers, H. E., Lansford, J. E., Pettit, G. S., et al. (2011). CHRM2, parental monitoring, and adolescent externalizing behavior: Evidence for gene-environment interaction. Psychological Science, 22, 481–489.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Meyers, J. L., Rose, R. J., Kaprio, J., & Kendler, K. S. (2011). Measures of current alcohol consumption and problems: Two independent twin studies suggest a complex genetic architecture. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35(12), 2152–2161.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Plunkett, J., Wetherill, L. F., Xuei, X., Goate, A., Hesselbrock, V., et al. (2006). Association between GABRA1 and drinking behaviors in the collaborative study on the genetics of alcoholism sample. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1101–1110.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Prescott, C. A., & McGue, M. (2009). The genetics of substance use and substance use disorders. In K. Yong-Kyu (Ed.), Handbook of behavior genetics (pp. 433–453). New York: Springer.

    Google Scholar 

  • Dick, D. M., Rose, R. J., Viken, R. J., Kaprio, J., & Koskenvuo, M. (2001). Exploring gene-environment interactions: Socioregional moderation of alcohol use. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 110, 625–632.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drgon, T., D’Addario, C., & Uhl, G. R. (2006). Linkage disequilibrium, haplotype and association studies of a chromosome 4 GABA receptor gene cluster: Candidate gene variants for addictions. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141, 854–860.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drgon, T., Johnson, C. A., Nino, M., Drgonova, J., Walther, D. M., & Uhl, G. R. (2011). “Replicated” genome wide association for dependence on illegal substances: Genomic regions identified by overlapping clusters of nominally positive SNPs. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 156, 125–138.

    Google Scholar 

  • Drgon, T., Johnson, C., Walther, D., Albino, A. P., Rose, J. E., & Uhl, G. R. (2009). Genome-wide association for smoking cessation success: Participants in a trial with adjunctive denicotinized cigarettes. Molecular Medicine, 15, 268–274.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Drgon, T., Montoya, I., Johnson, C., Liu, Q. R., Walther, D., Hamer, D., et al. (2009). Genome-wide association for nicotine dependence and smoking cessation success in NIH research volunteers. Molecular Medicine, 15, 21–27.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Duncan, L. E., & Keller, M. C. (2011). A critical review of the first 10 years of candidate gene-by-environment interaction research in psychiatry. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168(10), 1041–1049.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edenberg, H. J. (2007). The genetics of alcohol metabolism: Role of alcohol dehydrogenase and aldehyde dehydrogenase variants. Alcohol Research & Health, 30, 5–13.

    Google Scholar 

  • Edenberg, H. J., Dick, D. M., Xuei, X., Tian, H., Almasy, L., Bauer, L. O., et al. (2004). Variations in GABRA2, encoding the alpha 2 subunit of the GABA(a) receptor, are associated with alcohol dependence and with brain oscillations. American Journal of Human Genetics, 74, 705–714.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edenberg, H. J., Koller, D. L., Xuei, X., Wetherill, L., McClintick, J. N., Almasy, L., et al. (2010). Genome-wide association study of alcohol dependence implicates a region on chromosome 11. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 34(5), 840–852.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A. C., Maes, H. H., Pedersen, N. L., & Kendler, K. S. (2011). A population-based twin study of the genetic and environmental relationship of major depression, regular tobacco use and nicotine dependence. Psychological Medicine, 41, 395–405.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Edwards, A. C., Sihvola, E., Korhonen, T., Pulkkinen, L., Moilanen, I., Kaprio, J., et al. (2011). Depressive symptoms and alcohol use are genetically and environmentally correlated across adolescence. Behavior Genetics, 41, 476–487.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, C. L., Gilder, D. A., Gizer, I. R., & Wilhelmsen, K. C. (2009). Heritability and a genome-wide linkage analysis of a type II/B cluster construct for cannabis dependence in an American Indian community. Addiction Biology, 14, 338–348.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ehlers, C. L., Gizer, I. R., Vieten, C., & Wilhelmsen, K. C. (2010). Linkage analyses of cannabis dependence, craving, and withdrawal in the San Francisco family study. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153B, 802–811.

    Google Scholar 

  • Fehr, C., Sander, T., Tadic, A., Lenzen, K. P., Anghelescu, I., Klawe, C., et al. (2006). Confirmation of association of the GABRA2 gene with alcohol dependence by subtype-specific analysis. Psychiatric Genetics, 16, 9–17.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fergusson, D. M., Swain-Campbell, N. R., & Horwood, L. J. (2002). Deviant peer affiliations, crime and substance use: A fixed effects regression analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 30, 419–430.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, T., Lifford, K., Shelton, K., Rice, F., Thapar, A., Neale, M. C., et al. (2007). Exploring the relationship between genetic and environmental influences on initiation and progression of substance use. Addiction, 102, 413–422.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, C. D., Lu, Q., Johnson, P. M., Marks, M. J., & Kenny, P. J. (2011). Habenular alpha5 nicotinic receptor subunit signalling controls nicotine intake. Nature, 471, 597–601.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, J. H., Settle, J. E., & Christakis, N. A. (2011). Correlated genotypes in friendship networks. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 1993–1997.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fowler, T., Shelton, K., Lifford, K., Rice, F., McBride, A., Nikolov, I., et al. (2007). Genetic and environmental influences on the relationship between peer alcohol use and own alcohol use in adolescents. Addiction, 102, 894–903.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Frank, J., Cichon, S., Treutlein, J., Ridinger, M., Mattheisen, M., Hoffmann, P., et al. (2011). Genome-wide significant association between alcohol dependence and a variant in the ADH gene cluster. Addiction Biology, 17(1), 171–180.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Freeman, J. L., Perry, G. H., Feuk, L., Redon, R., McCarroll, S. A., Altshuler, D. M., et al. (2006). Copy number variation: new insights in genome diversity. Genome Research, 16, 949–961.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Fu, Q., Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Nelson, E., Goldberg, J., Lyons, M. J., et al. (2002). Shared genetic risk of major depression, alcohol dependence, and marijuana dependence: Contribution of antisocial personality disorder in men. Archives of General Psychiatry, 59, 1125–1132.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gejman, P. V., Sanders, A. R., & Kendler, K. S. (2011). Genetics of schizophrenia: new findings and challenges. Annual Review of Genomics and Human Genetics, 12, 121–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, J., Kranzler, H. R., Sherva, R., Almasy, L., Koesterer, R., Smith, A. H., et al. (2014). Genome-wide association study of alcohol dependence:significant findings in African- and European-Americans including novel risk loci. Mol Psychiatry, 19(1), 41–49.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, J., Panhuysen, C., Weiss, R., Brady, K., Hesselbrock, V., Rounsaville, B., et al. (2005). Genomewide linkage scan for cocaine dependence and related traits: Significant linkages for a cocaine-related trait and cocaine-induced paranoia. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 136, 45–52.

    Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, J., Panhuysen, C., Wilcox, M., Hesselbrock, V., Rounsaville, B., Poling, J., et al. (2006). Genomewide linkage scan for opioid dependence and related traits. American Journal of Human Genetics, 78, 759–769.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gelernter, J., Yu, Y., Weiss, R., Brady, K., Panhuysen, C., Yang, B. Z., et al. (2006). Haplotype spanning TTC12 and ANKK1, flanked by the DRD2 and NCAM1 loci, is strongly associated to nicotine dependence in two distinct American populations. Human Molecular Genetics, 15, 3498–3507.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gillespie, N. A., Neale, M. C., Jacobson, K., & Kendler, K. S. (2009). Modeling the genetic and environmental association between peer group deviance and cannabis use in male twins. Addiction, 104, 420–429.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gonzales, D., Rennard, S. I., Nides, M., Oncken, C., Azoulay, S., Billing, C. B., et al. (2006). Varenicline, an alpha4beta2 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor partial agonist, vs sustained-release bupropion and placebo for smoking cessation: A randomized controlled trial. JAMA, 296, 47–55.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Goodwin, D. W., Schulsinger, F., Hermansen, L., Guze, S. B., & Winokur, G. (1973). Alcohol problems in adoptees raised apart from alcoholic biological parents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 28, 238–243.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Gottesman, I. I., & Gould, T. D. (2003). The endophenotype concept in psychiatry: Etymology and strategic intentions. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 636–645.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grucza, R. A., Johnson, E. O., Krueger, R. F., Breslau, N., Saccone, N. L., Chen, L. S., et al. (2010). Incorporating age at onset of smoking into genetic models for nicotine dependence: Evidence for interaction with multiple genes. Addiction Biology, 15, 346–357.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Grucza, R. A., Wang, J. C., Stitzel, J. A., Hinrichs, A. L., Saccone, S. F., Saccone, N. L., et al. (2008). A risk allele for nicotine dependence in CHRNA5 is a protective allele for cocaine dependence. Biological Psychiatry, 64, 922–929.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Guxens, M., Nebot, M., Ariza, C., & Ochoa, D. (2007). Factors associated with the onset of cannabis use: A systematic review of cohort studies. Gaceta Sanitaria, 21, 252–260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han, S., Gelernter, J., Luo, X., & Yang, B. Z. (2010). Meta-analysis of 15 genome-wide linkage scans of smoking behavior. Biological Psychiatry, 67, 12–19.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Han, S., Yang, B. Z., Kranzler, H. R., Oslin, D., Anton, R., & Gelernter, J. (2011). Association of CHRNA4 polymorphisms with smoking behavior in two populations. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 156B, 421–429.

    Google Scholar 

  • Harden, K. P., Hill, J. E., Turkheimer, E., & Emery, R. E. (2008). Gene-environment correlation and interaction in peer effects on adolescent alcohol and tobacco use. Behavior Genetics, 38, 339–347.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hasin, D. S., O’Brien, C. P., Auriacombe, M., Borges, G., Bucholz, K., Budney A., et al. (2013). DSM-5 criteria for substance use disorders: recommendations and rationale. American Journal of Psychiatry, 170(8), 834–851.

    Google Scholar 

  • Haughey, H. M., Marshall, E., Schacht, J. P., Louis, A., & Hutchison, K. E. (2008). Marijuana withdrawal and craving: Influence of the cannabinoid receptor 1 (CNR1) and fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH) genes. Addiction, 103(10), 1678–1686.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A., Dinwiddie, S. H., Slutske, W. S., Bierut, L. J., et al. (1997). Genetic and environmental contributions to alcohol dependence risk in a national twin sample: Consistency of findings in women and men. Psychological Medicine, 27, 1381–1396.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., Jardine, R., & Martin, N. G. (1989). Interactive effects of genotype and social environment on alcohol consumption in female twins. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 50, 38–47.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., & Martin, N. G. (1994). Genetic influences on alcohol consumption patterns and problem drinking: Results from the Australian NH&MRC twin panel follow-up survey. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 708, 72–85.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., Lynskey, M. T., Todorov, A. A., & Madden, P. A. (2002). Estimating two-stage models for genetic influences on alcohol, tobacco or drug use initiation and dependence vulnerability in twin and family data. Twin Research, 5, 113–124.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., Whitfield, J. B., Madden, P. A., Bucholz, K. K., Dinwiddie, S. H., Slutske, W. S., et al. (2001). Towards a molecular epidemiology of alcohol dependence: Analysing the interplay of genetic and environmental risk factors. British Journal of Psychiatry. Supplement, 40(s33–40), s33–s40.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heath, A. C., Whitfield, J. B., Martin, N. G., Pergadia, M. L., Goate, A. M., Lind, P. A., et al. (2011). A quantitative-trait genome-wide association study of alcoholism risk in the community: Findings and implications. Biological Psychiatry, 70(6), 513–518.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Heilig, M., Goldman, D., Berrettini, W., & O’Brien, C. P. (2011). Pharmacogenetic approaches to the treatment of alcohol addiction. Nature Reviews. Neuroscience, 12, 670–684.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hewitt, J. K. (2012). Editorial policy on candidate gene association and candidate gene-by-environment interaction studies of complex traits. Behavior Genetics, 42, 1–2.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hibell, B., Guttormson, U., Ahlstrom, S., Balakireva, O., Bjarnason, T., Kokkevi, A., et al. (2012). The 2011 ESPAD report: Substance use among students in 36 European countries. Stockholm: The Swedish Council for Information on Alcohol and Other Drugs (CAN); EMCDDA; Council of Europe.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hicks, B. M., Schalet, B. D., Malone, S. M., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2011). Psychometric and genetic architecture of substance use disorder and behavioral disinhibition measures for gene association studies. Behavior Genetics, 41, 459–475.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Higuchi, S., Matsushita, S., Imazeki, H., Kinoshita, T., Takagi, S., & Kono, H. (1994). Aldehyde dehydrogenase genotypes in Japanese alcoholics. Lancet, 343, 741–742.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopfer, C. J., Lessem, J. M., Hartman, C. A., Stallings, M. C., Cherny, S. S., Corley, R. P., et al. (2007). A genome-wide scan for loci influencing adolescent cannabis dependence symptoms: Evidence for linkage on chromosomes 3 and 9. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 89(1), 34–41.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hopfer, C. J., Young, S. E., Purcell, S., Crowley, T. J., Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., et al. (2006). Cannabis receptor haplotype associated with fewer cannabis dependence symptoms in adolescents. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 141B, 895–901.

    Google Scholar 

  • Hughes, J. R. (2009). How confident should we be that smoking cessation treatments work? Addiction, 104, 1637–1640.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Huizink, A. C., Levalahti, E., Korhonen, T., Dick, D. M., Pulkkinen, L., Rose, R. J., et al. (2010). Tobacco, cannabis, and other illicit drug use among Finnish adolescent twins: Causal relationship or correlated liabilities? Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 71, 5–14.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hukkanen, J., Jacob, P., III, & Benowitz, N. L. (2005). Metabolism and disposition kinetics of nicotine. Pharmacological Reviews, 57, 79–115.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hung, R. J., McKay, J. D., Gaborieau, V., Boffetta, P., Hashibe, M., Zaridze, D., et al. (2008). A susceptibility locus for lung cancer maps to nicotinic acetylcholine receptor subunit genes on 15q25. Nature, 452, 633–637.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Hurley, J. H., Ballard, C. J., & Edenberg, H. J. (2009). Altering the relative abundance of GABA a receptor subunits changes GABA- and ethanol-responses in Xenopus oocytes. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 33, 1089–1096.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Iacono, W. G., Carlson, S. R., Taylor, J., Elkins, I. J., & McGue, M. (1999). Behavioral disinhibition and the development of substance-use disorders: Findings from the Minnesota twin family study. Development and Psychopathology, 11, 869–900.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ittiwut, C., Yang, B. Z., Kranzler, H. R., Anton, R. F., Hirunsatit, R., Weiss, R. D., et al. (2012). GABRG1 and GABRA2 variation associated with alcohol dependence in African Americans. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 36, 588–593.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Jackson, K. J., Marks, M. J., Vann, R. E., Chen, X., Gamage, T. F., Warner, J. A., et al. (2010). Role of alpha5 nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in pharmacological and behavioral effects of nicotine in mice. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 334, 137–146.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, B. A., Ait-Daoud, N., Seneviratne, C., Roache, J. D., Javors, M. A., Wang, X. Q., et al. (2011). Pharmacogenetic approach at the serotonin transporter gene as a method of reducing the severity of alcohol drinking. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 168, 265–275.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, E. O., Chen, L. S., Breslau, N., Hatsukami, D., Robbins, T., Saccone, N. L., et al. (2010). Peer smoking and the nicotinic receptor genes: An examination of genetic and environmental risks for nicotine dependence. Addiction, 105, 2014–2022.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C., Drgon, T., Liu, Q. R., Zhang, P. W., Walther, D., Li, C. Y., et al. (2008). Genome wide association for substance dependence: Convergent results from epidemiologic and research volunteer samples. BMC Medical Genetics, 9, 113.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnson, C., Drgon, T., Walther, D., & Uhl, G. R. (2011). Genomic regions identified by overlapping clusters of nominally-positive SNPs from genome-wide studies of alcohol and illegal substance dependence. PLoS One, 6, e19210.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Johnston, L. D., O’Malley, P., Bachman, J. G., & Schulenberg, J. (2011). Marijuana use is rising; ecstasy use is beginning to rise; and alcohol use is declining among U.S. teens. Retrieved from http://www.monitoringthefuture.org

  • Jonsson, E. G., Nothen, M. M., Grunhage, F., Farde, L., Nakashima, Y., Propping, P., et al. (1999). Polymorphisms in the dopamine D2 receptor gene and their relationships to Striatal dopamine receptor density of healthy volunteers. Molecular Psychiatry, 4, 290–296.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kaprio, J., Rose, R. J., Romanov, K., & Koskenvuo, M. (1991). Genetic and environmental determinants of use and abuse of alcohol: The Finnish Twin Cohort studies. Alcohol and Alcoholism. Supplement, 1(131–6), 131–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Heath, A. C., Neale, M. C., Kessler, R. C., & Eaves, L. J. (1992). A population-based twin study of alcoholism in women. Journal of the American Medical Association, 268, 1877–1882.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Gardner, C. O., Gillespie, N., Aggen, S. A., & Prescott, C. A. (2007). Creating a social world: A developmental twin study of peer-group deviance. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 958–965.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Jacobson, K. C., Prescott, C. A., & Neale, M. C. (2003). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for use and abuse/dependence of cannabis, cocaine, hallucinogens, sedatives, stimulants, and opiates in male twins. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 687–695.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Kalsi, G., Holmans, P. A., Sanders, A. R., Aggen, S. H., Dick, D. M., et al. (2011). Genomewide association analysis of symptoms of alcohol dependence in the molecular genetics of schizophrenia (MGS2) control sample. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 35, 963–975.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Karkowski, L. M., Neale, M. C., & Prescott, C. A. (2000). Illicit psychoactive substance use, heavy use, abuse, and dependence in a US population-based sample of male twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 261–269.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Myers, J., & Prescott, C. A. (2007). Specificity of genetic and environmental risk factors for symptoms of cannabis, cocaine, alcohol, caffeine, and nicotine dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1313–1320.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Neale, M. C., Sullivan, P., Corey, L. A., Gardner, C. O., & Prescott, C. A. (1999). A population-based twin study in women of smoking initiation and nicotine dependence. Psychological Medicines, 29, 299–308.

    Google Scholar 

  • Kendler, K. S., Prescott, C. A., Myers, J., & Neale, M. C. (2003). The structure of genetic and environmental risk factors for common psychiatric and substance use disorders in men and women. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 929–937.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kenna, G. A. (2010). Medications acting on the serotonergic system for the treatment of alcohol dependent patients. Current Pharmaceutical Design, 16, 2126–2135.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Keyes, K. M., Krueger, R. F., Grant, B. F., & Hasin, D. S. (2011). Alcohol craving and the dimensionality of alcohol disorders. Psychological Medicine, 41, 629–640.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Khantzian, E. J. (1997). The self-medication hypothesis of substance use disorders: A reconsideration and recent applications. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 4, 231–244.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • King, D. P., Paciga, S., Pickering, E., Benowitz, N. L., Bierut, L. J., Conti, D. V., et al. (2012). Smoking cessation pharmacogenetics: Analysis of varenicline and bupropion in placebo-controlled clinical trials. Neuropsychopharmacology, 37, 641–650.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Koopmans, J. R., Slutske, W. S., van Baal, G. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (1999). The influence of religion on alcohol use initiation: Evidence for genotype X environment interaction. Behavior Genetics, 29, 445–453.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Korhonen, T., Huizink, A. C., Dick, D. M., Pulkkinen, L., Rose, R. J., & Kaprio, J. (2008). Role of individual, peer and family factors in the use of cannabis and other illicit drugs: A longitudinal analysis among Finnish adolescent twins. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 97, 33–43.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kranzler, H. R., Armeli, S., Tennen, H., Covault, J., Feinn, R., Arias, A. J., et al. (2011). A double-blind, randomized trial of sertraline for alcohol dependence: Moderation by age of onset [corrected] and 5-hydroxytryptamine transporter-linked promoter region genotype. Journal of Clinical Psychopharmacology, 31, 22–30.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kranzler, H. R., Wilcox, M., Weiss, R. D., Brady, K., Hesselbrock, V., Rounsaville, B., et al. (2008). The validity of cocaine dependence subtypes. Addictive Behaviors, 33, 41–53.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Krueger, R. F., Hicks, B. M., Patrick, C. J., Carlson, S. R., Iacono, W. G., & McGue, M. (2002). Etiologic connections among substance dependence, antisocial behavior, and personality: Modeling the externalizing spectrum. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 111, 411–424.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Kuo, P. H., Neale, M. C., Riley, B. P., Webb, B. T., Sullivan, P. F., Vittum, J., et al. (2006). Identification of susceptibility loci for alcohol-related traits in the Irish Affected Sib Pair Study of Alcohol Dependence. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 30, 1807–1816.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Langenbucher, J., Labouvie, E. W., Martin, C., Sanjuan, P. M., Bavly, L., Kirisci, L., et al. (2004). An application of item response theory analysis to alcohol, cannabis and cocaine criteria in DSM-IV. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 113, 72–80.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lappalainen, J., Krupitsky, E., Remizov, M., Pchelina, S., Taraskina, A., Zvartau, E., et al. (2005). Association between alcoholism and gamma-amino butyric acid alpha2 receptor subtype in a Russian population. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 29, 493–498.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lessov, C. N., Martin, N. G., Statham, D. J., Todorov, A. A., Slutske, W. S., Bucholz, K. K., et al. (2004). Defining nicotine dependence for genetic research: Evidence from Australian twins. Psychological Medicine, 34, 865–879.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., Pang, Z., Swan, G. E., Guo, Q., Wang, S., Cao, W., et al. (2006). Heritability of cigarette smoking and alcohol use in Chinese male twins: The Qingdao twin registry. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35, 1278–1285.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Li, D., Zhao, H., & Gelernter, J. (2011). Strong association of the alcohol dehydrogenase 1B gene (ADH1B) with alcohol dependence and alcohol-induced medical diseases. Biological Psychiatry, 70(6), 504–512.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lichtman, A. H., Hawkins, E. G., Griffin, G., & Cravatt, B. F. (2002). Pharmacological activity of fatty acid amides is regulated, but not mediated, by fatty acid amide hydrolase in vivo. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics, 302, 73–79.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lin, P., Hartz, S. M., Wang, J. C., Agrawal, A., Zhang, T. X., McKenna, N., et al. (2012). Copy number variations in 6q14.1 And 5q13.2 are associated with alcohol dependence. Alcoholism Clinical & Experimental Research, 36(9), 1512–1518.

    Google Scholar 

  • Lind, P., MacGregor, S., Agrawal, A., Heath, A. C., Martin, N. G., & Whitfield, J. B. (2008). The role of GABRA2 in alcohol dependence, smoking and illicit drug use in an Australian population sample. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 32(10), 1721–1731.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lind, P. A., Macgregor, S., Vink, J. M., Pergadia, M. L., Hansell, N. K., de Moor, M. H., et al. (2010). A genomewide association study of nicotine and alcohol dependence in Australian and Dutch populations. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 13, 10–29.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J. Z., Tozzi, F., Waterworth, D. M., Pillai, S. G., Muglia, P., Middleton, L., et al. (2010). Meta-analysis and imputation refines the association of 15q25 with smoking quantity. Nature Genetics, 42, 436–440.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Liu, J., Yang, A. R., Kelly, T., Puche, A., Esoga, C., June, H. L., Jr., et al. (2011). Binge alcohol drinking is associated with GABAA alpha2-regulated Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression in the central amygdala. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 4465–4470.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Long, J. C., Knowler, W. C., Hanson, R. L., Robin, R. W., Urbanek, M., Moore, E., et al. (1998). Evidence for genetic linkage to alcohol dependence on chromosomes 4 and 11 from an autosome-wide scan in an American Indian population. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81, 216–221.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lubke, G. H., Hottenga, J. J., Walters, R., Laurin, C., de Geus, E. J., Willemsen, G., et al. (2012). Estimating the genetic variance of major depressive disorder due to all single nucleotide polymorphisms. Biological Psychiatry, 72(8), 707–709.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Luo, X., Kranzler, H. R., Zuo, L., Wang, S., Schork, N. J., & Gelernter, J. (2006). Diplotype trend regression analysis of the ADH gene cluster and the ALDH2 gene: Multiple significant associations with alcohol dependence. American Journal of Human Genetics, 78, 973–987.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynskey, M. T., Grant, J. D., Nelson, E. C., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A., Statham, D. J., et al. (2006). Duration of cannabis use—A novel phenotype? Addictive Behaviors, 31, 984–994.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lynskey, M. T., Heath, A. C., Nelson, E. C., Bucholz, K. K., Madden, P. A., Slutske, W. S., et al. (2002). Genetic and environmental contributions to cannabis dependence in a national young adult twin sample. Psychological Medicine, 32, 195–207.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Lyons, M., Hitsman, B., Xian, H., Panizzon, M. S., Jerskey, B. A., Santangelo, S., et al. (2008). A twin study of smoking, nicotine dependence, and major depression in men. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 10, 97–108.

    Google Scholar 

  • Macgregor, S., Lind, P. A., Bucholz, K. K., Hansell, N. K., Madden, P. A., Richter, M. M., et al. (2009). Associations of ADH and ALDH2 gene variation with self report alcohol reactions, consumption and dependence: An integrated analysis. Human Molecular Genetics, 18, 580–593.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Mackay, J., Eriksen, M., & Shafey, O. (2006). The tobacco atlas (Nyraid Editions Limited ed.). Atlanta, GA: The American Cancer Society.

    Google Scholar 

  • Madden, P. A., Heath, A. C., Pedersen, N. L., Kaprio, J., Koskenvuo, M. J., & Martin, N. G. (1999). The genetics of smoking persistence in men and women: A multicultural study. Behavior Genetics, 29, 423–431.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Malaiyandi, V., Lerman, C., Benowitz, N. L., Jepson, C., Patterson, F., & Tyndale, R. F. (2006). Impact of CYP2A6 genotype on pretreatment smoking behaviour and nicotine levels from and usage of nicotine replacement therapy. Molecular Psychiatry, 11, 400–409.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. S., Chung, T., Kirisci, L., & Langenbucher, J. W. (2006). Item response theory analysis of diagnostic criteria for alcohol and cannabis use disorders in adolescents: Implications for DSM-V. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 115, 807–814.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Martin, C. S., Chung, T., & Langenbucher, J. W. (2008). How should we revise diagnostic criteria for substance use disorders in the DSM-V? Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 117, 561–575.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Maze, I., & Nestler, E. J. (2011). The epigenetic landscape of addiction. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1216, 99–113. doi:10.1111/j.1749-6632.2010.05893.x.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGue, M., Iacono, W. G., & Krueger, R. (2006). The association of early adolescent problem behavior and adult psychopathology: A multivariate behavioral genetic perspective. Behavior Genetics, 36(4), 591–602.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGue, M., Keyes, M., Sharma, A., Elkins, I., Legrand, L., Johnson, W., et al. (2007). The environments of adopted and non-adopted youth: Evidence on range restriction from the Sibling Interaction and Behavior Study (SIBS). Behavior Genetics, 37, 449–462.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McGue, M., Sharma, A., & Benson, P. (1996). Parent and sibling influences on adolescent alcohol use and misuse: Evidence from a U.S. adoption cohort. Journal of Studies on Alcohol, 57, 8–18.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McKay, J. D., Truong, T., Gaborieau, V., Chabrier, A., Chuang, S. C., Byrnes, G., et al. (2011). A genome-wide association study of upper aerodigestive tract cancers conducted within the INHANCE consortium. PLoS Genetics, 7, e1001333.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • McLean, P. J., Farb, D. H., & Russek, S. J. (1995). Mapping of the alpha 4 subunit gene (GABRA4) to human chromosome 4 defines an alpha 2-alpha 4-beta 1-gamma 1 gene cluster: Further evidence that modern GABAA receptor gene clusters are derived from an ancestral cluster. Genomics, 26, 580–586.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas, K. R., Stevens, D. E., Fenton, B., Stolar, M., O’Malley, S., Woods, S. W., et al. (1998). Co-morbidity and familial aggregation of alcoholism and anxiety disorders. Psychological Medicine, 28, 773–788.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Merikangas, K. R., Stolar, M., Stevens, D. E., Goulet, J., Preisig, M. A., Fenton, B., et al. (1998). Familial transmission of substance use disorders. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 973–979.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munafo, M. R., Matheson, I. J., & Flint, J. (2007). Association of the DRD2 gene Taq1A polymorphism and alcoholism: A meta-analysis of case-control studies and evidence of publication bias. Molecular Psychiatry, 12, 454–461.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Munafo, M. R., Timpson, N. J., David, S. P., Ebrahim, S., & Lawlor, D. A. (2009). Association of the DRD2 gene Taq1A polymorphism and smoking behavior: A meta-analysis and new data. Nicotine & Tobacco Research, 11, 64–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Neale, M. C., & Cardon, L. R. (1992). Methodology for genetic studies of twins and families. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Kluwer Academic.

    Google Scholar 

  • Nelson, E. C., Agrawal, A., Pergadia, M. L., Wang, J. C., Whitfield, J. B., Saccone, F. S., et al. (2010). H2 Haplotype at chromosome 17q21.31 protects against childhood sexual abuse-associated risk for alcohol consumption and dependence. Addiction Biology, 15, 1–11.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Neville, M. J., Johnstone, E. C., & Walton, R. T. (2004). Identification and characterization of ANKK1: A novel kinase gene closely linked to DRD2 on chromosome band 11q23.1. Human Mutation, 23, 540–545.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Noble, E. P., & Blum, K. (1993). Alcoholism and the D2 dopamine receptor gene. JAMA, 270, 1547–1548.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Nutt, D., King, L. A., Saulsbury, W., & Blakemore, C. (2007). Development of a rational scale to assess the harm of drugs of potential misuse. Lancet, 369, 1047–1053.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • O’Brien, C. (2011). Addiction and dependence in DSM-V. Addiction, 106, 866–867.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Oslin, D. W., Berrettini, W., Kranzler, H. R., Pettinati, H., Gelernter, J., Volpicelli, J. R., et al. (2003). A functional polymorphism of the mu-opioid receptor gene is associated with naltrexone response in alcohol-dependent patients. Neuropsychopharmacology, 28, 1546–1552.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pagan, J. L., Rose, R. J., Viken, R. J., Pulkkinen, L., Kaprio, J., & Dick, D. M. (2006). Genetic and environmental influences on stages of alcohol use across adolescence and into young adulthood. Behavior Genetics, 36, 483–497.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Perron, B. E., Ahmedani, B. K., Vaughn, M. G., Glass, J. E., Abdon, A., & Wu, L. T. (2012). Use of Salvia divinorum in a nationally representative sample. American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse, 38(1), 108–113.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Plomin, R., DeFries, J. C., & Loehlin, J. C. (1977). Genotype-environment interaction and correlation in the analysis of human behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 84, 309–322.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Pohjalainen, T., Rinne, J. O., Nagren, K., Lehikoinen, P., Anttila, K., Syvalahti, E. K., et al. (1998). The A1 allele of the human D2 dopamine receptor gene predicts low D2 receptor availability in healthy volunteers. Molecular Psychiatry, 3, 256–260.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, C. A., Aggen, S. H., & Kendler, K. S. (1999). Sex differences in the sources of genetic liability to alcohol abuse and dependence in a population-based sample of U.S. twins. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 23, 1136–1144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, C. A., Aggen, S. H., & Kendler, K. S. (2000). Sex-specific genetic influences on the comorbidity of alcoholism and major depression in a population-based sample of US twins. Archives of General Psychiatry, 57, 803–811.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Prescott, C. A., & Kendler, K. S. (1995). Genetic and environmental influences on alcohol and tobacco dependence among women. NIAAA Research. Monograph, 30, 59–87.

    Google Scholar 

  • Rangaswamy, M., & Porjesz, B. (2008). Uncovering genes for cognitive (dys)function and predisposition for alcoholism spectrum disorders: A review of human brain oscillations as effective endophenotypes. Brain Research, 1235, 153–171.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Ray, L. A., & Hutchison, K. E. (2007). Effects of naltrexone on alcohol sensitivity and genetic moderators of medication response: A double-blind placebo-controlled study. Archives of General Psychiatry, 64, 1069–1077.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, T. (1996). A genomic survey of alcohol dependence and related phenotypes: Results from the Collaborative Study on the Genetics of Alcoholism (COGA). Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 20, 133A–137A.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Reich, T., Edenberg, H. J., Goate, A., Williams, J. T., Rice, J. P., Van, E. P., et al. (1998). Genome-wide search for genes affecting the risk for alcohol dependence. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 81, 207–215.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhee, S. H., Hewitt, J. K., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., Crowley, T. J., Neale, M. C., et al. (2006). Comorbidity between alcohol dependence and illicit drug dependence in adolescents with antisocial behavior and matched controls. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 84(1), 85–92.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rhee, S. H., Hewitt, J. K., Young, S. E., Corley, R. P., Crowley, T. J., & Stallings, M. C. (2003). Genetic and environmental influences on substance initiation, use, and problem use in adolescents. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60, 1256–1264.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Risch, N., Herrell, R., Lehner, T., Liang, K. Y., Eaves, L., Hoh, J., et al. (2009). Interaction between the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), stressful life events, and risk of depression: A meta-analysis. Journal of the American Medical Association, 301, 2462–2471.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Roberts, S. B., MacLean, C. J., Neale, M. C., Eaves, L. J., & Kendler, K. S. (1999). Replication of linkage studies of complex traits: An examination of variation in location estimates. American Journal of Human Genetics, 65, 876–884.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. J. (1998). A developmental behavior-genetic perspective on alcoholism risk. Alcohol Health and Research World, 22, 131–143.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, J. E., Behm, F. M., Drgon, T., Johnson, C., & Uhl, G. R. (2010). Personalized smoking cessation: Interactions between nicotine dose, dependence and quit-success genotype score. Molecular Medicine, 16, 247–253.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. J., & Dick, D. M. (2010). Commentary on Agrawal et al. (2010): Social environments modulate alcohol use. Addiction, 105, 1854–1855.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. J., Dick, D. M., Viken And, R. J., & Kaprio, J. (2001). Gene-environment interaction in patterns of adolescent drinking: Regional residency moderates longitudinal influences on alcohol use. Alcoholism, Clinical and Experimental Research, 25, 637–643.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. J., Kaprio, J., Winter, T., Koskenvuo, M., & Viken, R. J. (1999). Familial and socioregional environmental effects on abstinence from alcohol at age sixteen. Journal of Studies on Alcohol. Supplement, 13, 63–74.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rose, R. J., Viken, R. J., Dick, D. M., Bates, J. E., Pulkkinen, L., & Kaprio, J. (2003). It does take a village: Nonfamilial environments and children’s behavior. Psychological Science, 14, 273–277.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Moffitt, T. E., & Caspi, A. (2006). Gene-environment interplay and psychopathology: Multiple varieties but real effects. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47, 226–261.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Rutter, M., Pickles, A., Murray, R., & Eaves, L. (2001). Testing hypotheses on specific environmental causal effects on behavior. Psychological Bulletin, 127, 291–324.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saccone, N. L., Culverhouse, R. C., Schwantes-An, T. H., Cannon, D. S., Chen, X., Cichon, S., et al. (2010). Multiple independent loci at chromosome 15q25.1 affect smoking quantity: A meta-analysis and comparison with lung cancer and COPD. PLoS Genetics, 6, e1001053.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saccone, S. F., Hinrichs, A. L., Saccone, N. L., Chase, G. A., Konvicka, K., Madden, P. A., et al. (2007). Cholinergic nicotinic receptor genes implicated in a nicotine dependence association study targeting 348 candidate genes with 3713 SNPs. Human Molecular Genetics, 16, 36–49.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saccone, N. L., Kwon, J. M., Corbett, J., Goate, A., Rochberg, N., Edenberg, H. J., et al. (2000). A genome screen of maximum number of drinks as an alcoholism phenotype. American Journal of Medical Genetics, 96, 632–637.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saccone, S. F., Pergadia, M. L., Loukola, A., Broms, U., Montgomery, G. W., Wang, J. C., et al. (2007). Genetic linkage to chromosome 22q12 for a heavy smoking quantitative trait in two independent samples. American Journal of Human Genetics, 80, 856–866.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Saha, T. D., Chou, S. P., & Grant, B. F. (2006). Toward an alcohol use disorder continuum using item response theory: Results from the National Epidemiologic Survey on alcohol and related conditions. Psychological Medicine, 36, 931–941.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Scarr, S., & McCartney, J. (1983). How people make their own environment: A theory of genotype greater than environmental effects. Child Development, 54, 424–435.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schnoll, R. A., & Lerman, C. (2006). Current and emerging pharmacotherapies for treating tobacco dependence. Expert Opinion on Emerging Drugs, 11, 429–444.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Schumann, G., Coin, L. J., Lourdusamy, A., Charoen, P., Berger, K. H., Stacey, D., et al. (2011). Genome-wide association and genetic functional studies identify autism susceptibility candidate 2 gene (AUTS2) in the regulation of alcohol consumption. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 108, 7119–7124.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sham, P. (1998). Statistics in human genetics. London, England: John Wiley and Sons.

    Google Scholar 

  • Shanahan, M. J., & Hofer, S. M. (2005). Social context in gene-environment interactions: Retrospect and prospect. Journals of Gerontology. Series B, Psychological Sciences and Social Sciences, 60, 65–76.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sherva, R., Kranzler, H. R., Yu, Y., Logue, M. W., Poling, J., Arias, A. J., et al. (2010). Variation in nicotinic acetylcholine receptor genes is associated with multiple substance dependence phenotypes. Neuropsychopharmacology, 35, 1921–1931.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sigvardsson, S., Bohman, M., & Cloninger, C. R. (1996). Replication of the Stockholm Adoption Study of alcoholism. Confirmatory cross-fostering analysis. Archives of General Psychiatry, 53, 681–687.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sipe, J. C., Chiang, K., Gerber, A. L., Beutler, E., & Cravatt, B. F. (2002). A missense mutation in human fatty acid amide hydrolase associated with problem drug use. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 99, 8394–8399.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Smith, L., Watson, M., Gates, S., Ball, D., & Foxcroft, D. (2008). Meta-analysis of the association of the Taq1A polymorphism with the risk of alcohol dependency: A HuGE gene-disease association review. American Journal of Epidemiology, 167, 125–138.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Soyka, M., Preuss, U. W., Hesselbrock, V., Zill, P., Koller, G., & Bondy, B. (2008). GABA-A2 receptor subunit gene (GABRA2) polymorphisms and risk for alcohol dependence. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 42, 184–191.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Spielman, R. S., McGinnis, R. E., & Ewens, W. J. (1993). Transmission test for linkage disequilibrium: The insulin gene region and insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM). American Journal of Human Genetics, 52, 506–516.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., Dennehey, B., Hewitt, J. K., Krauter, K. S., Lessem, J. M., et al. (2005). A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci that influence antisocial drug dependence in adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 62, 1042–1051.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., Hewitt, J. K., Krauter, K. S., Lessem, J. M., Mikulich, S. K., et al. (2003). A genome-wide search for quantitative trait loci influencing substance dependence vulnerability in adolescence. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 70, 295–307.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Straub, R. E., Sullivan, P. F., Ma, Y., Myakishev, M. V., Harris-Kerr, C., Wormley, B., et al. (1999). Susceptibility genes for nicotine dependence: A genome scan and followup in an independent sample suggest that regions on chromosomes 2, 4, 10, 16, 17 and 18 merit further study. Molecular Psychiatry, 4, 129–144.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Sturgess, J. E., George, T. P., Kennedy, J. L., Heinz, A., & Muller, D. J. (2011). Pharmacogenetics of alcohol, nicotine and drug addiction treatments. Addiction Biology, 16, 357–376.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2011). Results from the 2010 National survey of drug use and health: Summary of national findings (Rep. No. NSDUH Series H-41, HHS Publication No. (SMA) 11-4658). Rockville, MD: Author.

    Google Scholar 

  • Sullivan, P. F., Neale, B. M., van den Oord, E., Miles, M. F., Neale, M. C., Bulik, C. M., et al. (2004). Candidate genes for nicotine dependence via linkage, epistasis, and bioinformatics. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 126, 23–36.

    Google Scholar 

  • Swan, G. E., Javitz, H. S., Jack, L. M., Wessel, J., Michel, M., Hinds, D. A., et al. (2012). Varenicline for smoking cessation: Nausea severity and variation in nicotinic receptor genes. Pharmacogenomics Journal, 12(4), 349–358.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thomasson, H. R., Crabb, D. W., Edenberg, H. J., & Li, T. K. (1993). Alcohol and aldehyde dehydrogenase polymorphisms and alcoholism. Behavior Genetics, 23, 131–136.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thompson, J., Thomas, N., Singleton, A., Piggott, M., Lloyd, S., Perry, E. K., et al. (1997). D2 Dopamine receptor gene (DRD2) Taq1 A polymorphism: Reduced dopamine D2 receptor binding in the human striatum associated with the A1 allele. Pharmacogenetics, 7, 479–484.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorgeirsson, T. E., Geller, F., Sulem, P., Rafnar, T., Wiste, A., Magnusson, K. P., et al. (2008). A variant associated with nicotine dependence, lung cancer and peripheral arterial disease. Nature, 452, 638–642.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Thorgeirsson, T. E., Gudbjartsson, D. F., Surakka, I., Vink, J. M., Amin, N., Geller, F., et al. (2010). Sequence variants at CHRNB3-CHRNA6 and CYP2A6 affect smoking behavior. Nature Genetics, 42, 448–453.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tobacco and Genetics Consortium. (2010). Genome-wide meta-analyses identify multiple loci associated with smoking behavior. Nature Genetics, 42, 441–447.

    Google Scholar 

  • Treutlein, J., Cichon, S., Ridinger, M., Wodarz, N., Soyka, M., Zill, P., et al. (2009). Genome-wide association study of alcohol dependence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 66, 773–784.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuang, M. T., Bar, J. L., Harley, R. M., & Lyons, M. J. (2001). The Harvard Twin Study of substance abuse: What we have learned. Harvard Review of Psychiatry, 9, 267–279.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tsuang, M. T., Lyons, M. J., Meyer, J. M., Doyle, T., Eisen, S. A., Goldberg, J., et al. (1998). Co-occurrence of abuse of different drugs in men: The role of drug- specific and shared vulnerabilities. Archives of General Psychiatry, 55, 967–972.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Tyndale, R. F., Payne, J. I., Gerber, A. L., & Sipe, J. C. (2007). The fatty acid amide hydrolase C385A (P129T) missense variant in cannabis users: Studies of drug use and dependence in Caucasians. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 144, 660–666.

    Google Scholar 

  • Uhl, G. R., Drgon, T., Johnson, C., Ramoni, M. F., Behm, F. M., & Rose, J. E. (2010). Genome-wide association for smoking cessation success in a trial of precessation nicotine replacement. Molecular Medicine, 16, 513–526.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhl, G. R., Drgon, T., Johnson, C., Walther, D., David, S. P., Aveyard, P., et al. (2010). Genome-wide association for smoking cessation success: Participants in the patch in practice trial of nicotine replacement. Pharmacogenomics, 11, 357–367.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Uhl, G. R., Liu, Q. R., Drgon, T., Johnson, C., Walther, D., Rose, J. E., et al. (2008). Molecular genetics of successful smoking cessation: Convergent genome-wide association study results. Archives of General Psychiatry, 65, 683–693.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Unger, J. B., Lessov-Schlaggar, C. N., Pang, Z., Guo, Q., Ning, F., Gallaher, P., et al. (2011). Heritability of smoking, alcohol use, and psychological characteristics among adolescent twins in Qingdao, China. Asia Pacific Journal of Public Health, 23, 568–580.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • United States Department of Justice, D. E. A. (2012). Title 21 United States Code (USC) Controlled Substances Act. Springfield, VA: United States Department of Justice.

    Google Scholar 

  • van den Bree, M. B., Johnson, E. O., Neale, M. C., & Pickens, R. W. (1998). Genetic and environmental influences on drug use and abuse/dependence in male and female twins. Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 52, 231–241.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • van den Bree, M. B., Rice, F., Fowler, T. A., Shelton, K. H., Lifford, K. J., Scourfield, J., et al. (2007). The Cardiff Study of all Wales and North West of England Twins (CaStANET): A longitudinal research program of child and adolescent development. Twin Research and Human Genetics, 10, 13–23.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vandrey, R., Dunn, K. E., Fry, J. A., & Girling, E. R. (2012). A survey study to characterize use of spice products (synthetic cannabinoids). Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 120(1–3), 238–241.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Verweij, K. J., Zietsch, B. P., Lynskey, M. T., Medland, S. E., Neale, M. C., Martin, N. G., et al. (2010). Genetic and environmental influences on cannabis use initiation and problematic use: A meta-analysis of twin studies. Addiction, 105, 417–430.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Villafuerte, S., Heitzeg, M. M., Foley, S., Yau, W. Y., Majczenko, K., Zubieta, J. K., et al. (2012). Impulsiveness and insula activation during reward anticipation are associated with genetic variants in GABRA2 in a family sample enriched for alcoholism. Molecular Psychiatry, 17(5), 511–519.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Vink, J. M., Wolters, L. M., Neale, M. C., & Boomsma, D. I. (2010). Heritability of cannabis initiation in Dutch adult twins. Addictive Behaviors, 35, 172–174.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wacholder, S., Chatterjee, N., & Caporaso, N. (2008). Intermediacy and gene-environment interaction: The example of CHRNA5-A3 region, smoking, nicotine dependence, and lung cancer. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 100, 1488–1491.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wang, Y., Broderick, P., Webb, E., Wu, X., Vijayakrishnan, J., Matakidou, A., et al. (2008). Common 5p15.33 and 6p21.33 variants influence lung cancer risk. Nature Genetics, 40, 1407–1409.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Weiss, R. B., Baker, T. B., Cannon, D. S., von Niederhausern, A., Dunn, D. M., Matsunami, N., et al. (2008). A candidate gene approach identifies the CHRNA5-A3-B4 region as a risk factor for age-dependent nicotine addiction. PLoS Genetics, 4, e1000125.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Wong, C. C., Mill, J., & Fernandes, C. (2011). Drugs and addiction: An introduction to epigenetics. Addiction, 106, 480–489.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2007). International statistical classification of diseases and related health problems, 10th revision (10th ed.). Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2011a). Global health risks. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2011b). Global status report on alcohol and health Geneva. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • World Health Organization. (2011c). WHO report on the global tobacco epidemic, 2011: Warning about the dangers of tobacco Geneva. Geneva: World Health Organization.

    Google Scholar 

  • Xuei, X., Flury-Wetherill, L., Dick, D., Goate, A., Tischfield, J., Nurnberger, J., Jr., et al. (2010). GABRR1 and GABRR2, encoding the GABA-A receptor subunits rho1 and rho2, are associated with alcohol dependence. American Journal of Medical Genetics. Part B, Neuropsychiatric Genetics, 153B, 418–427.

    Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., Benyamin, B., McEvoy, B. P., Gordon, S., Henders, A. K., Nyholt, D. R., et al. (2010). Common SNPs explain a large proportion of the heritability for human height. Nature Genetics, 42, 565–569.

    PubMed Central  PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, B. Z., Kranzler, H. R., Zhao, H., Gruen, J. R., Luo, X., & Gelernter, J. (2007). Association of haplotypic variants in DRD2, ANKK1, TTC12 and NCAM1 to alcohol dependence in independent case control and family samples. Human Molecular Genetics, 16, 2844–2853.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Yang, J., Manolio, T. A., Pasquale, L. R., Boerwinkle, E., Caporaso, N., Cunningham, J. M., et al. (2011). Genome partitioning of genetic variation for complex traits using common SNPs. Nature Genetics, 43, 519–525.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

  • Young, S. E., Rhee, S. H., Stallings, M. C., Corley, R. P., & Hewitt, J. K. (2006). Genetic and environmental vulnerabilities underlying adolescent substance use and problem use: General or Specific? Behavior Genetics, 36, 603–615.

    PubMed  Google Scholar 

Download references

Acknowledgements

AA is funded by K02-DA32573 and R01-DA23668. MTL is funded by DA18660 and DA18267. We thank Mr. Luke Terrell for his assistance with copyediting.

Author information

Authors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychiatry, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA

    Arpana Agrawal & Michael T. Lynskey

  2. Institute of Psychiatry, Addictions Department, King’s College London, London, UK

    Michael T. Lynskey

Authors
  1. Arpana Agrawal
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

  2. Michael T. Lynskey
    View author publications

    You can also search for this author in PubMed Google Scholar

Corresponding author

Correspondence to Arpana Agrawal .

Editor information

Editors and Affiliations

  1. Department of Psychology and NeuroScience, University of Colorado, Boulder, Colorado, USA

    Soo Hyun Rhee

  2. Department of Psychological Sciences, University of London, London, United Kingdom

    Angelica Ronald

Rights and permissions

Reprints and permissions

Copyright information

© 2014 Springer Science+Business Media New York

About this chapter

Cite this chapter

Agrawal, A., Lynskey, M.T. (2014). Genetics of Substance Use Disorders. In: Rhee, S., Ronald, A. (eds) Behavior Genetics of Psychopathology. Advances in Behavior Genetics, vol 2. Springer, New York, NY. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-9509-3_7

Download citation

Publish with us

Policies and ethics

Search

Navigation